Glorious Tang Culture

It is the culture of the Tang Dynasty that influences Chinese most. “One will be on the highest level of literature and art if he can compose good poems as Du Fu did; write good prose as Han Yu did; create good calligraphy as Yan Zhenqing did and draw good paintings as Wu Daozi did (All four famous artists are of the Tang Dynasty),” commented Su Dongpo, one of China’s greatest writers and artists from the Song Dynasty. The perfection of culture was reached by people of the Tang Dynasty. That is why Chinese people admire the Tang Dynasty most.

Dugongci Memorial to the Tang poet Du Fu

The literature of the Tang Dynasty, best embodied by its poetry, is one of the most glamorous components of the culture of the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty is famed for its rich collection of poems. Not only did it give the world magnificent poems, but also created an open-minded society in which every art form was allowed to develop and thrive. When asked how to introduce kids to Chinese culture, Chinese people will give you this answer—let them recite Tang poetry. This unique and astonishing education tradition is an eloquent reminder of how deeply the poetry of the Tang Dynasty has been influencing the Chinese people and the Oriental culture.

The chronology of Tang poetry can be divided into four parts: the early stage of the Tang Dynasty, the prime stage of the Tang Dynasty, the middle stage of the Tang Dynasty and the late stage of the Tang Dynasty. All Tang poets had something to be connected with Chang’an (present Xi’an, the capital city then) in one way or another. Many famous poets and writers of the Tang Dynasty either started their literature dream from Chang’an or finished their master pieces in Chang’an. Take Wang Wei (701～761AD) for an example. In his late life, Wang Wei lived in Wangchuan Plain near Chang’an where the beautiful mountains and rivers provided endless inspirations for him. Many of his works feature the natural scenery in that area. For instance, See Yuan Er off to the West was composed in Weicheng Inn by Weishui River, which later became China’s most well-known poem on seeing friends or family off. It’s so well-known that people who visit Chang’an later keep asking whether the Inn is still there up till now. Li Bai (701～762AD) who was hailed as the greatest poet in ancient China was not famous when he first came to Chang’an. It was the then well-known poet He Zhizhang (659～744AD, Tang poet and calligrapher) who helped him gain a foothold. He Zhizhang exclaimed after reading Li Bai’s How Hard Are Roads in Sichuan！“You are really an immortal in exile”. Thus Li Bai has been known as the “Immortal in Exile” ever since. Because of the praise from He Zhizhang, Li Bai attracted the attention from the court and the literary circle. That is why his inspirations kept welling out and he created the most poems in Chinese history.

Du Fu (712～770AD) known as “Poet-sage” of China, is also closely connected with Chang’an. He used to live at the Shaoling Tableland to the south of Chang’an, thus his pseudonym “Du Shaoling”. A memorial was built in honor of him near the Shaoling Tableland where people can climb onto the top to look back into history and look to the future.

Bai Juyi (772～846AD) , one of the local poets in Shaanxi Province, entered Chang’an poem circle in a similar way as Li Bai. He stood on his own feet in Chang’an under the recommendation of Gu Kuang (725～814AD, a writer, poet and critic). Gu Kuang was already and esteemed figure in literary sphere. In Chang’an, Li Bai wrote the well-known Xinyuefu (New Court Style Poetry), a collection of 50 poems by him and Qinzhongyin (Songs in Shaanxi) which contains 10 poems by him. In 806AD a visit to Xianyou Temple (about 100km away from Chang’an, near the place where Lady Yang was hung) sent Bai into thinking about the historical events and figures as well as the ups and downs that the turbulent country had experienced. Then he composed The Song of Eternal Sorrow with strong emotions. It is the longest narrative poem in the history of Chinese literature. The poem earns him a lofty position in the field of poetry.

Chang’an was not only the political and cultural center of China at that time but also the source of literature of different genres. Many poems composed in this period were about Chang’an. Approximately 60,000 poems have been passed down from the Tang Dynasty, 40% of which have something to do with Chang’an. In Chang’an, the literary works would be rapidly distributed and widely read no matter where they were finished. At that time Chang’an was the media center of China and also the place where the imperial and civil service examination took place, which gave much of its weight to testing candidates’ skills in composing poetry. It is irreplaceable and played an important role in literary criticism and tutoring. Therefore, the heyday of Chang’an literature brought about the prime of the culture of the Tang Dynasty

Calligraphy is the most representative cultural phenomenon in traditional Chinese culture. It is in the Tang Dynasty that calligraphy became the essence of Chinese culture and spirit after it was developed into an independent art form from an applicable technique. Wang Xizhi was the most famous master calligraphor in the Jin Dynasty (316～420AD) and his calligraphic works reached the first peak of this art in the history of Chinese calligraphy. At that time, calligraphy was just a hobby of the high-ranking officials and prominent writers. It was a practical skill, not a high-level mental activity. The social culture was not much influenced by calligraphy. It is in the Tang Dynasty that people had a strong desire to express their ideas and demonstrate their spirits, personalities and emotions through the art of calligraphy. This provided a wonderful opportunity and environment for the development of calligraphy in the Tang Dynasty. Calligraphy was turned into an art form that could hold the personality and thinking of the calligrapher after a complicated procedure of abstraction. Many foreign scholars say, “Chinese people know it best how to appreciate and create the superficial beauty and the inner beauty in the world”. During the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an witnessed the golden age of Chinese calligraphy when the diversity of calligraphy was its distinctive feature. The kaishu (regular script) and caoshu (cursive script) reached the highest level at that time. Meanwhile other kinds of scripts also had their achievements. Each had its own representatives. Different styles of scripts presented a fl ourishing period of calligraphy in the Tang Dynasty. The broad, composed, and forceful calligraphic style of the Tang Dynasty had far-reaching infl uence on the behavior of Chinese people.

Ouyang Xun and Yu Shinan were two famous master calligraphors in early Tang Dynasty. Their calligraphies had very strong personalities. Yan Zhenqing was born in Wannian (present Xi’an), Shaanxi Province. He integrated the northern tablets (calligraphy carved on stone tablets in vertical manner) and the southern copybooks (calligraphy on copybooks and also carved tablets in the horizontal manner) into his calligraphy. He created his own style based on the Bei and Tie and became famous for the revolutionary style. He imbued his calligraphy with his personalities that were solemnity, composure and broadness. His calligraphy was thoroughly personalized. He was the greatest calligrapher who absorbed the merits of all famous calligraphers after master calligrapher Wang Xizhi. No calligraphers could make a match with him after he passed away. Yan Zhenqing’s regular script featured with strength and thickness which coincided with the aesthetic view of the Tang Dynasty. In the Tang Dynasty, people thought that full-figure ladies were beautiful. For this reason, Yan Zhenqing’s calligraphy became very popular at that time. Yan took the view that calligraphy should present an artistic condition of strength, beauty and sharpness. He stressed that all strokes in each character should be strengthful. He said “The strokes for writing a character are like the skeleton for a person.” So the strokes must be forceful. The structure of each character and the layout of all the characters on a piece of paper should well be arranged horizontally and vertically. Therefore, all the characters on a piece of paper should be written and arranged according to certain norms. It is no good to randomly put the characters together on a piece of paper. The precious calligraphic works of Yan Zhenqing carved on stone tablets are—Stone Tablet of Yan Family Shrine, Stone Tablet of The Duobao Pagoda, and The Tablet to Yan Qinli in Xi’an Beilin Museum.

Stone Tablet of Yan Family Shrine

Liu Gongquan, a native of Shaanxi Province, a master calligrapher of regular script in the late Tang Dynasty after Yan Zhenqing. Like calligraphy-lovers, he imitated the style of Wang Xizhi and Yan Zhenqing at the beginning. Later he pondered over merits of other calligraphers and his features in calligraphy and created his own style, Liu style. This style is still very popular today. His characters have close structure and grand shape. Each stroke has enormous power in it. This is why people habitually mention their names together and call their calligraphic works as Yan-Liu Style. Liu Gongquan’s enjoyed a very good reputation at that time. Generals and high-ranking officials tried their best to collect his works and took his calligraphy as the family treasure. A lot of foreigners also spent lots of money on his calligraphy. Stone Tablet of the Xuanmi Pagoda and Stone Tablet of the Shence Army are his representative works for later generations to learn from.

Part of caligraphy of the Xuanmi Pagoda on Stone Tablet by Liu Gongquan

Cursive script by Zhang Xu and Huai Su is like flying dragons and moving snakes or a flashing light, which brings the beauty of calligraphy to its extreme through the style, the abstract thinking and elegant movement of brush. In other words, it was the highly expressive culture of the Tang Dynasty that fostered cursive script then. Zhang Xu was enlightened greatly after watching the dance performance of Lady Gongsun, who was a famous dancer and good at moving fast like lightning as well as fierce wind. He got a true understanding about the beauty of dynamics in calligraphy. His progress in calligraphy was like a face-lift and he raised himself to a new level that was never reached by people before. Other master calligraphers, like Li Yong, Li Yangbing, Sun Guoting and Yang Ningshi, also made contributions to unparalleled calligraphic achievements of the Tang Dynasty. The splendid calligraphy was a crucial component of the prosperous Tang Dynasty.

Cursive script of Zhang Xu

In the Tang Dynasty, calligraphy was paid much attention and value by the people, which weighed a great deal and had a significant influence on people’s lives. And it was an important program for cultural exchanges between China and other countries. Therefore, many emissaries to China would endeavor to collect works of master calligraphers. Most of the calligraphy works of the Tang Dynasty were carved on the stone tablets. In the Tang Dynasty, people established their reputation through their literary works and calligraphy. So the books and the calligraphy on stone tablets were testimonials for the people at that time. People of the Tang Dynasty took their books and calligraphic works very seriously. So the best writers were invited to write their best articles and poems. The best calligraphers were invited to write the words in the article and poem. The best stonemasons were invited to do the carving. So the stone tablets from the Tang Dynasty carried the essence of literature and calligraphy of the dynasty. The essence of the culture of the Tang Dynasty was also appreciated and shared by the people in later dynasties, even today. The large amount of stone tablets lays the foundation and provides a prerequisite for the founding of Xi’an Beilin Museum—the largest home to Chinese calligraphy. So we can say: It is impossible to establish Xi’an Beilin Museum without the stone tablets from the Tang Dynasty. The museum has been turned into a place for people to show their respect to the culture of the Tang Dynasty and to learn calligraphy from the Tang Dynasty. These stone tablets are great treasure for the whole nation.

Different from calligraphy, in China painting became an independent art form long time ago. According to the historical records, as one of the main forms of the Tang Dynasty arts, murals were shown on walls of imperial palaces, residences of aristocrats, temples, grottoes and tombs. Among the 206 painters of the Tang Dynasty who can found either in the book Li Dai Ming Hua Chi (Record of the Famous Paintings through Ages) or in the book Tang Chao Ming Hua Lu (Collection of the Famous Paintings of the Tang Dynasty), 110 of whom took part in the production of murals. However, only murals in tombs are found well-preserved. The murals on the walls of imperial palaces, houses of aristocrats and temples are already gone because of the man-made or natural disasters in the long course of history. Only the murals in the tombs are kept well. These murals make it possible for us to appreciate the heyday of the murals of the Tang Dynasty. There are a few paper paintings and silk paintings left from the Tang Dynasty. In order to gain the knowledge about the paintings from the Tang Dynasty, people have to turn to the murals of the Tang Dynasty. Although murals of the Zhou Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty have been discovered, the murals of the Tang Dynasty outdo the murals produced in other dynasties in regard to the quantity and artistic value. Most of the murals of the Tang Dynasty are found in Shaanxi Province. And most of the murals discovered in Shaanxi are preserved in the Shaanxi History Museum. In this museum, there is a special exhibition hall that is used to display the murals of the Tang Dynasty.

The murals of the Tang Dynasty are the same as the paintings from the Tang Dynasty. Figure paintings take a big percentage among all the paintings of the Tang Dynasty. On the paintings of the Tang Dynasty, the figures of human beings also take a big percentage. Flower and bird paintings and landscape paintings of the Tang Dynasty were in a fl edging state and took a small percentage among all the paintings produced in the Tang Dynasty. The subject of the painting in the Tang Dynasty is always human beings. Artists of the Tang Dynasty drew the figures of human in a very active, warm and positive attitude. This attitude makes a big difference with the attitude of the artists in later dynasties. Artists of the later dynasties mainly took landscapes, birds and flowers as their subjects. Figures of human on their paintings are very small and obscure. Humans on the painting are just foils. In terms of the texture of the murals of the Tang Dynasty are concerned about people. In other words, the murals of the Tang Dynasty are people-oriented. And the paintings from later dynasties are nature-oriented. The technical level of the paintings in the Tang Dynasty is not the highest in China. Since the paintings of the Tang Dynasty are people-oriented, so they take a very important position in the art history of China.

The theme of the murals of the Tang Dynasty is to show the imperial life. And people would think that the imperial court was a place where people were restricted by the power of the emperor and the hierarchy system. The murals in the dark tomb passage would make people feel sad, depressed and horrible. Just on the contrary, the mural titled Expedition for Hunting shows a grand and exciting scene. The mural painting titled The Court Ladies presents a group of elegant and graceful court ladies to us. The mural titled Meeting Guests demonstrates the friendly exchange between Chinese and foreign diplomats in the Tang Dynasty. The atmosphere exposed by these murals is brisk, cheerful and positive. The figures on the mural paintings are confident and at ease. The murals from the tomb of the Tang Dynasty are important sources for the study of art history. They are also essential visual materials for us to study the society of the Tang Dynasty. The murals are the best media for us to feel the positive and upward atmosphere and spirit of the Tang Dynasty.

It is worth to mention that there has always been an active sect of painting called Chang’an Painting Sect during the Tang Dynasty. It was famous for its unique regional culture because Chang’an (present day Xi’an) was the center of arts of the Tang Dynasty. Chang’an Painting Sect is composed of both local and non-local artists of the Guanzhong Plain. These artists became the mainstream of the art circle of the Tang Dynasty who led the trends of painting art of that time through discussions on extensive theories as well as a lot of practices on Chinese paintings. For four centuries, all the important art innovations appeared in Chang’an. Then they were developed and became new styles, new technique and new genres in the city. Here are some examples to show how some of painting styles, techniques and genres were introduced into Chang’an, how they developed and how they went to maturity in this city. The first example is about landscape paintings. The landscape painting was introduced into Chang’an by the artists from the Middle East. The artists created the painting that gave people a picture with solid effect. They created the effect by skillfully applying chromatic aberratio. The artists from the Middle East also brought the blue and green landscape paintings into Chang’an that was like a fresh air to the local people. The fine brushwork figure, especially court lady figure painting was also introduced into Chang’an by those artists from the Middle East. The flower painting and the academic painting were renowned genre of the art in Chang’an City at that time. The academic painting sect was developed in the Song Dynasty (960～1279 AD). The artists of this sect only drew paintings for the imperial court at that time. All these above mentioned were initiated and promoted in Chang’an, and finally the new painting styles, skills, and sects were formed in this city. Chang’an Painting Sect had many famous artists throughout the Tang Dynasty. From painter Zhan Ziqian of the Sui Dynasty, there came outstanding painters successively, namely Yan Lide, and his brother Yan Liben, Wu Daozi, Lu Lengjia, Li Sixun, and his son Li Zhaodao, Wang Wei, Zhang Xuan, Zhou Fang, Han Gan (good at horse drawing), Cao Ba, Han Huang (good at ox drawing), and the artists from the Middle East called Yuchi Yiseng, Bian Luan, Guan Tong, and Jing Hao from the Late Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties (907～960AD). This trend went all the way through the Northern Song Dynasty (960～1127AD). Both Li Cheng and Fan Kuan, the most eminent painters of the Tang Dynasty, also lived during this period. The reason for such a long and unique culture chain is that Chang’an Painting Sect had a tremendous cultural influence which kept its spirit going through different dynasties and lasted for over a thousand years. It is such a wonder in Chinese painting history that Chang’an Painting Sect’s spirit of inheritance and renovation everlastingly leads Chinese painting trends.

The art of sculpting in the Tang Dynasty is another unprecedented art form that nobody could make a match before the founding and after the fall of the Tang Dynasty (618～907AD). Just as the painting of the Tang Dynasty, the sculptors faced the life and society in an active and positive attitude, and then reflected the reality through their art works. They produced many stone sculptures which were mature in skills and techniques. Some of the stone sculptures are real master art works. They impress people more than the paintings. Nowadays many people think that the stone sculptures of the Tang Dynasty can better present the grandeur of the dynasty. The six steeds are the most representative among all the stone sculptures of the Tang Dynasty.

Six Steeds from Zhaoling Mausoleum

The Six Steeds of Zhaoling Mausoleum are six stone reliefs of war horses which were arranged in the veranda to the north of the altar in front of Zhaoling Mausoleum, Shaanxi Province. Zhaoling Mausoleum is the mausoleum of Emperor Taizong (599～649AD). The steeds were six precious war horses of him. They were employed by him from 618AD to 622AD. Their names are: Quanmaogua, Shifachi, Baitiwu, Telebiao, Qingzhui and Saluzi. Of the six steeds, three are in the standing posture and another three are in running posture. They were designed upon the intention of Emperor Taizong, and were painted by the famous artist Yan Liben (601～673AD), Emperor Taizong drafted the inscription for the horses. The inscription was copied by Ouyang Xun (557～641AD) who was one of the greatest calligraphers in Chinese history. Then the calligraphy was caved on the stone by the master stonemasons among the mausoleum builders. Four out of the six horses bear arrows shot from the enemies; on one hand, the horses embody the hardship Emperor Taizong’s experience when establishing the new empire; on the other hand, they embody the spirit of bravery. According to some textual research, the six steeds on the stone reliefs were originally from the Turkic Khanate and other countries under its infl uence. The concise lines draw us the heroic picture of Emperor Taizong in six large-scale wars for founding the new dynasty. And the steed reliefs bring us a picture of national integration of Han, the minorities from the prairies in the north and foreigners in the heartland of China. The Six Steeds of Zhaoling Mausoleum represent the peak of sculpting art in the Tang Dynasty. They’re successful in sculpting; exquisite in techniques and rich in content as well as indications. The lines of the reliefs are simple and concise that displays the sturdiness and exuberance of the horses. The techniques used for making the six stone horses are high relief and round carving. Before this, only round carving was used to sculpt the stone horses. High relief was introduced into China from India by the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty. It was a novelty at that time. In comparison with round carving, high relief saved energy and time. Round carving could give people a very strong impact in vision. High relief helps stone carving get into a new stage. The body lines of the six steeds are very smooth and beautiful. The outline of the steeds shows the fearlessness and vitality of the horses.

The Six Steeds of Zhaoling Mausoleum were placed within the Sima Gate in front of Zhaoling Mausoleum in 636AD. Having experienced the history of over 1,000 years, they are still standing fi rmly at the north gate of Zhaoling Mausoleum. Unfortunately, two of them, Quanmaogua and Saluzi, were stolen and bought by the museum of University of Pennsylvania. The rest four were transmitted to Shaanxi Provincial Museum (Xi’an Beilin Museum) after the founding of P. R. China.

They are regarded as ancient Chinese art treasures. The Chinese government has never given up retrieving the two lost steeds. In 1972, gifts for China were widely sought across the US before President Nixon visited China. And Tsung-Dao Lee, the famous physicist and the laureate of Nobel Prize, suggested that the two steeds should be given back to China. His suggestion was given great attention by the US government; however, the petition was finally refused because of disagreements between political parties. In recent years, authorities of China and America have been contacting and talking about the return of the two steeds.

The flourishing age and the spirit of the Tang Dynasty are reflected not only on poems, calligraphy, paintings, sculptures and other fields of art, but also on the use and manufacturing of implements such as the gold and silver wares. These relics show us a glorious, broad and profound culture of the Tang Dynasty.

The Tang Dynasty is one of the golden periods in Chinese history. The manufacture and use of gold and silver wares were in full flourish during the Tang Dynasty (618～907AD). At that time China was an open country with political stability, economic prosperity and took the lead in science and technology in the world, using gold and silver wares was in vogue for the upper class and the total amount of luxurious objects could not be matched by the previous dynasties. It is also beyond our imagination today. In ruins of the Tang Dynasty, every excavation brought to light dozens or even hundreds of gold and silver wares that aroused great concern and even a sensation across the country. Statistics shows that the amount of unearthed gold and silver wares of the Tang Dynasty is several times larger than the sum of all its previous dynasties. The massive usage of gold and silver must rely on great material wealth of society. The use of gold and silver wares by the people of the Tang Dynasty tells us that the Tang Dynasty was an unprecedented prosperous and wealthy society. That is to say that the Tang Dynasty could afford for so many luxurious gold and silver objects that need the support of enormous fortune.

Silver jar with gilt parrots pattern and handle

The gold and silver wares produced during this period were rich in variety, modeling and ornamentation. Each type of wares has various shapes. They are universally full and vibrant. These gold and silver objects demonstrate the high spirit and confidence of the craftsmen of the Tang Dynasty. The gold and silver wares made in the Tang Dynasty bear the feature of maturity and generosity, which is embodied through the clever use of different patterns. Some of the patterns are simple, some are complicated, some are loose, some are dense, some are dynamic and some are static. The gold and silver products of the Tang Dynasty appear royal rather than delicate, elegant rather than gaudy. These shining works of art embody the spirit and morale of the Tang People and offer a glimpse of ancient China at that time. The patterns on gold and silver wares of the Tang Dynasty not only display external beauty in modeling, structure and color for visual pleasure, but also imply happiness and auspiciousness for mental satisfaction. These patterns are called auspicious patterns. For example, the turtles on the silver dish represent longevity while foxes stand for peace and safety. The mandarin duck is a symbol of happy and long-term marriage. Peony and po-phase flowers symbolize richness and honor, while honeysuckle, lotus and pomegranate stand for a hope for having many children. These patterns beautify the gold and silver objects on one hand and indicate people’s wish for a better life on the other hand. It demonstrates the harmony of the form and connotation of those gold and silver pieces of the Tang Dynasty.

We may find that the carvings on the gold and silver objects are made according to a certain norm, though they seem produced freely. The carvings also look flexible, though they are manufactured by certain standard. All the carvings are arranged in a symmetric way. You may find out the rhythm in the balanced structure of each gold or silver piece. The carving techniques and the superb patterns on the surface of those gold and silver objects show the outstanding craftsmanship. Coincidentally, Chinese metrical verses and regular script have the same features in the middle and the heyday of the Tang Dynasty represented by the famous poet Du Fu as well as the well-known calligrapher Yan Zhenqing Poems and calligraphy of this type continue the magnificent style while they express deep feelings—commonly seen in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty—with normative and neat structures. Thus Du Fu and Yan Zhenqing establish their calligraphy and poems as classic and perfect art examples to all posterity.

Octagonal gold cup engraved with musicians and dancers

The design of gold and silver wares of the Tang Dynasty was greatly influenced by the outside world, so were people’s mind and lifestyle during that period. The frequency of foreign exchange of the Tang Dynasty is attributed to the politically open environment and the unimpeded Silk Road. The Tang Dynasty stood at the summit of its national power and exerted a strong influence on the outside world. At the same time, in order to meet the need of its development, the Tang Dynasty was enormously inclusive to foreign cultures. This is particularly obvious on the design and production of gold and silver wares. Under the influence of western culture and customs, the design, the modeling and pattern of the Tang Dynasty absorb the essence of neighboring countries such as the Sogdiana (an ancient country in Central Asia) and the Sassanid Dynasty (226～651AD) of ancient Persia in Southwest Asia. This is how the people of the Tang Dynasty retained the rich exotic flavor and diversity of the gold and silver objects. Some gold and silver products were shipped directly from other countries. Although some of the reproductions are very difficult to discern whether they are true or not, more products are still the combination of Chinese and Western styles in modeling and ornamentation. All these prove that the inclusiveness of the Tang Dynasty enlightened its people to give up some rigid traditions and transform their established conception and lifestyle. They were more than glad to accept the new custom and lifestyle. The significance of studying the gold and silver products of the Tang Dynasty is to find out how these products changed the conception of the people of the Tang Dynasty and how the foreign products exerted their influence on the technology and workmanship of the gold and silver products of the Tang Dynasty.

Gold and silver wares were mainly used by the upper-class and rulers of the Tang Dynasty. As the capital of the empire, Chang’an housed many royals, nobles, high-ranking officials and eunuchs, who were the most capable buyers of the gold and silver products. Up till now, over 1,000 pieces of gold and silver relics of the Tang Dynasty have been excavated. Two thirds of them were discovered in the place around Xi’an. Most of the gold and silver products found in Shaanxi Province are kept in Shaanxi History Museum, except for those excavated from the basement of the pagoda in Famen Temple.